There are several factors that may contribute to this high number of calf deaths in dairy herds:

• the keeping of too many animals in a confined area
• the price of milk that makes the long-term feeding of it to calves uneconomic
• calf pens that limit exercise for the production of body heat on a cold day
• calf pens that prevent the calves from moving to a more favourable position when the pen becomes hot, wet or humid.

Calf deaths can be reduced considerably by good housing, feeding, management and certain measures for the prevention of disease.

Although a calf often dies as a result of calf diseases that occur frequently, the real cause of the problem is actually the calf's weakened resistance. This can often be traced back to stress factors such as poor housing, feeding and management.

The cow must calve in a clean, germ-free environment, preferably in a dry, open camp away from other animals.

It is also important that the building should be dry, and have good ventilation, but no draughts. Additionally, it must be disinfected regularly. Remember that sunlight is the best disinfectant.

• The first four days:
  
  The calf must ingest sufficient colostrum within three hours after birth. For heavy breeds this is 2 litres and for light breeds, 1,5 litres. Colostrum has ingredients that immunize the calf against those diseases that the dam has already had.
  
  After 24 hours the calf is removed from the dam and placed in a separate pen where it receives milk from a bucket, artificial teat or stomach tube. Try to give colostrum up to the age of four days, as this has a protective influence on the calf's stomach.

• From the age of four days until weaning (± six weeks):
  
  Feeding calves full-cream milk or milk replacements are expensive. Therefore the calf must be weaned as soon as possible and then raised on dry feed. This is called a dry-feed system.
  
  At birth the calf's rumen is still small and the milk goes directly to the abomasum. At this stage it is still not ready to digest roughage. The rumen must therefore be stimulated to develop by giving the calf dry feed as early as possible.

• Give the calves milk or milk replacement only twice a day. A Friesian calf, for example, should receive about 2 litres in the morning and 2 litres in the evening.

• This quantity remains the same as the calf grows older, as it is a way of stimulating the calf to increase its dry-meal intake as its feeding requirements increases.

• From the age of seven days, to commence with, provide a bowl of meal next to the milk bucket. Rub some of the meal onto the calf's mouth after it has taken in milk, or put a little in the bucket after the calf has finished the milk.
• Provide fresh meal every day. Moist or hard meal is unpalatable to the calf.

• Provide fresh, clean drinking water on a daily basis. Keep the water away from the calf for one hour before and one hour after it gets its milk. Calves can drink too much water, which gives them diarrhoea.
• As soon as the calf ingests about 700 g of the commencement meal per day - usually at the age of five to six weeks - it can be weaned from the milk.
• From weaning until the age of three months, the calf receives a maximum of 1,5 kg of commencement meal as well as good quality hay, for example lucerne hay.
• Important: clean, fresh drinking water must always be available.

Good management is the most important aspect in the intensive raising of calves. It is essential that the farmer be observant and and keep a daily check on his animals in order to be able to act preventively to solve any problems as soon as they crop up.

• Calves must be marked immediately after birth.
• Cut off superfluous teats and disinfect the cut. A stitch to draw the edges of the skin together will promote healing.

• From the age of four to six weeks, the corniculate processes can be burned. Let an expert demonstrate this procedure.

• Bullocks can be castrated with a burdizzo at the age of three months.

• At the age of four to five months, all calves must be inoculated against Anaplasmosis. Heifers must also be inoculated against Brucellosis. Both inoculants can be administered simultaneously.